Spectroscopic Ellipsometry	3
	Contents	9
	Foreword	15
	Preface	17
	Acknowledgments	19
	1 Introduction to Spectroscopic Ellipsometry	21
	1.1 Features of Spectroscopic Ellipsometry	21
	1.2 Applications of Spectroscopic Ellipsometry	23
	1.3 Data Analysis	25
	1.4 History of Development	27
	1.5 Future Prospects	29
	References	30
	2 Principles of Optics	33
	2.1 Propagation of Light	33
	2.1.1 Propagation of One-Dimensional Waves	33
	2.1.2 Electromagnetic Waves	38
	2.1.3 Refractive Index	39
	2.2 Dielectrics	44
	2.2.1 Dielectric Polarization	44
	2.2.2 Dielectric Constant	45
	2.2.3 Dielectric Function	49
	2.3 Reflection and Transmission of Light	52
	2.3.1 Refraction of Light	52
	2.3.2 p- and s-Polarized Light Waves	53
	2.3.3 Reflectance and Transmittance	59
	2.3.4 Brewster Angle	60
	2.3.5 Total Reflection	62
	2.4 Optical Interference	63
	2.4.1 Optical Interference in Thin Films	63
	2.4.2 Multilayers	66
	References	68
	3 Polarization of Light	69
	3.1 Representation of Polarized Light	69
	3.1.1 Phase of Light	69
	3.1.2 Polarization States of Light Waves	70
	3.2 Optical Elements	72
	3.2.1 Polarizer (Analyzer)	73
	3.2.2 Compensator (Retarder)	77
	3.2.3 Photoelastic Modulator	78
	3.2.4 Depolarizer	79
	3.3 Jones Matrix	80
	3.3.1 Jones Vector	80
	3.3.2 Transformation of Coordinate Systems	82
	3.3.3 Jones Matrices of Optical Elements	86
	3.3.4 Representation of Optical Measurement by Jones Matrices	88
	3.4 Stokes Parameters	90
	3.4.1 Definition of Stokes Parameters	90
	3.4.2 Poincaré Sphere	92
	3.4.3 Partially Polarized Light	95
	3.4.4 Mueller Matrix	97
	References	98
	4 Principles of Spectroscopic Ellipsometry	101
	4.1 Principles of Ellipsometry Measurement	101
	4.1.1 Measured Values in Ellipsometry	101
	4.1.2 Coordinate System in Ellipsometry	104
	4.1.3 Jones and Mueller Matrices of Samples	106
	4.2 Ellipsometry Measurement	107
	4.2.1 Measurement Methods of Ellipsometry	107
	4.2.2 Rotating-Analyzer Ellipsometry (RAE)	113
	4.2.3 Rotating-Analyzer Ellipsometry with Compensator	117
	4.2.4 Rotating-Compensator Ellipsometry (RCE)	119
	4.2.5 Phase-Modulation Ellipsometry (PME)	124
	4.2.6 Infrared Spectroscopic Ellipsometry	126
	4.2.7 Mueller Matrix Ellipsometry	131
	4.2.8 Null Ellipsometry and Imaging Ellipsometry	133
	4.3 Instrumentation for Ellipsometry	137
	4.3.1 Installation of Ellipsometry System	137
	4.3.2 Fourier Analysis	140
	4.3.3 Calibration of Optical Elements	142
	4.3.4 Correction of Measurement Errors	147
	4.4 Precision and Error of Measurement	150
	4.4.1 Variation of Precision and Error with Measurement Method	151
	4.4.2 Precision of (?, ?)	155
	4.4.3 Precision of Film Thickness and Absorption Coefficient	157
	4.4.4 Depolarization Effect of Samples	159
	References	161
	5 Data Analysis	167
	5.1 Interpretation of (?, ?)	167
	5.1.1 Variations of (?, ?) with Optical Constants	167
	5.1.2 Variations of (?, ?) in Transparent Films	170
	5.1.3 Variations of (?, ?) in Absorbing Films	175
	5.2 Dielectric Function Models	178
	5.2.1 Lorentz Model	180
	5.2.2 Interpretation of the Lorentz Model	182
	5.2.3 Sellmeier and Cauchy Models	190
	5.2.4 Tauc–Lorentz Model	190
	5.2.5 Drude Model	193
	5.2.6 Kramers–Kronig Relations	196
	5.3 Effective Medium Approximation	197
	5.3.1 Effective Medium Theories	197
	5.3.2 Modeling of Surface Roughness	201
	5.3.3 Limitations of Effective Medium Theories	204
	5.4 Optical Models	207
	5.4.1 Construction of Optical Models	207
	5.4.2 Pseudo-Dielectric Function	209
	5.4.3 Optimization of Sample Structures	211
	5.4.4 Optical Models for Depolarizing Samples	211
	5.5 Data Analysis Procedure	216
	5.5.1 Linear Regression Analysis	216
	5.5.2 Fitting Error Function	219
	5.5.3 Mathematical Inversion	220
	References	224
	6 Ellipsometry of Anisotropic Materials	229
	6.1 Reflection and Transmission of Light by Anisotropic Materials	229
	6.1.1 Light Propagation in Anisotropic Media	229
	6.1.2 Index Ellipsoid	233
	6.1.3 Dielectric Tensor	235
	6.1.4 Jones Matrix of Anisotropic Samples	237
	6.2 Fresnel Equations for Anisotropic Materials	242
	6.2.1 Anisotropic Substrate	242
	6.2.2 Anisotropic Thin Film on Isotropic Substrate	244
	6.3 4×4 Matrix Method	246
	6.3.1 Principles of the 4×4 Matrix Method	246
	6.3.2 Calculation Method of Partial Transfer Matrix	252
	6.3.3 Calculation Methods of Incident and Exit Matrices	253
	6.3.4 Calculation Procedure of the 4×4 Matrix Method	256
	6.4 Interpretation of (?, ?) for Anisotropic Materials	257
	6.4.1 Variations of (?, ?) in Anisotropic Substrates	257
	6.4.2 Variations of (?, ?) in Anisotropic Thin Films	261
	6.5 Measurement and Data Analysis of Anisotropic Materials	263
	6.5.1 Measurement Methods	263
	6.5.2 Data Analysis Methods	265
	References	266
	7 Data Analysis Examples	269
	7.1 Insulators	269
	7.1.1 Analysis Examples	269
	7.1.2 Advanced Analysis	272
	7.2 Semiconductors	276
	7.2.1 Optical Transitions in Semiconductors	276
	7.2.2 Modeling of Dielectric Functions	278
	7.2.3 Analysis Examples	282
	7.2.4 Analysis of Dielectric Functions	288
	7.3 Metals/Semiconductors	296
	7.3.1 Dielectric Function of Metals	296
	7.3.2 Analysis of Free-Carrier Absorption	301
	7.3.3 Advanced Analysis	306
	7.4 Organic Materials/Biomaterials	307
	7.4.1 Analysis of Organic Materials	307
	7.4.2 Analysis of Biomaterials	312
	7.5 Anisotropic Materials	314
	7.5.1 Analysis of Anisotropic Insulators	315
	7.5.2 Analysis of Anisotropic Semiconductors	316
	7.5.3 Analysis of Anisotropic Organic Materials	319
	References	323
	8 Real-Time Monitoring by Spectroscopic Ellipsometry	331
	8.1 Data Analysis in Real-Time Monitoring	331
	8.1.1 Procedures for Real-Time Data Analysis	332
	8.1.2 Linear Regression Analysis (LRA)	333
	8.1.3 Global Error Minimization (GEM)	337
	8.1.4 Virtual Substrate Approximation (VSA)	343
	8.2 Observation of Thin-Film Growth by Real-Time Monitoring	348
	8.2.1 Analysis Examples	348
	8.2.2 Advanced Analysis	351
	8.3 Process Control by Real-Time Monitoring	353
	8.3.1 Data Analysis in Process Control	354
	8.3.2 Process Control by Linear Regression Analysis (LRA)	354
	8.3.3 Process Control by Virtual Substrate Approximation (VSA)	360
	References	362
	Appendices	365
	1 Trigonometric Functions	365
	2 Definitions of Optical Constants	367
	3 Maxwell’s Equations for Conductors	369
	4 Jones–Mueller Matrix Conversion	373
	5 Kramers–Kronig Relations	377
	Index	381